«… who from going quite naked, close shaved and well rubbed with oil are so slippery that no one can seize them while they force their way with a dagger pointed at both ends and held by the middle» (from the description of the 19th century)

Indian armed ascetics first appear in the historical record at the beginning of the first millennium CE, and possibly significantly earlier. Their diverse responsibilities included guarding holy sites and pilgrimage routes, as well as protecting trade routes and caravans. These ascetics were employed as mercenary forces and were renowned as the most resilient infantry, particularly valued for their effectiveness in shock attacks. Their renowned loyalty ensured that rulers of various ranks retained them in their personal retinues or stationed their detachments within their capitals.

Despite their military origins, the armed ascetic orders were deeply integrated into commercial and civic life. Their primary activities included tax collection, trade, moneylending, and mercenary service. In fact, Maharajas continued to hire them for tax collection as late as the early 20th century. These orders also came to dominate the trade of valuable commodities such as precious stones, coral, raw silk, gold, and silver. By controlling trade routes that often coincided with pilgrimage paths, they managed a vast commercial network stretching from the Himalayas to South India.

Ascetics also engaged in other activities. The collection of taxes, for example, often resembled the extraction of ransoms or tribute. In another common scheme, property owners were effectively forced to hire ascetics to protect them from others ascetics. However, despite these occasional abuses, the ascetics played a crucial role in the broader economy. They generally ensured economic and trade stability, supported agriculture in their regions, and ultimately wove the disparate local economies into a cohesive national whole.

In terms of their structure and function, the ascetic orders of India bore a notable resemblance to the martial orders of medieval Europe, such as the Knights Templar or Hospitaller. This comparison is given historical credence by James Tod, the early 19th-century British political agent in Rajasthan, who documented their activities, stating:

“The Gosains who profess arms, partake of the character of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. They live in monasteries scattered over the country, possess lands, and beg, or serve for pay when called upon“.

The first mention of an armed ascetic appears in the Mahabhashya, a treatise from the early first millennium CE. This text refers to a “follower of Shiva”, describing him as a wandering ascetic who carried a staff and a solid metal spear and wore an animal skin. A seventh-century biography of a northern Indian ruler mentions two ascetics who served in the ruler’s personal bodyguard and, according to the text, “occupied the front ranks in battle”.

The history of the militarized monastic orders is far better documented from the late 16th century onward. This chronicle begins with a firsthand account by the Mughal Emperor Akbar, who witnessed a battle between Shaivite ascetics and yogis at Thanesar in 1567. The narrative of their military engagement concludes in 1914, when a group of ascetics offered their services to the Indian government to fight in the First World War. However, this offer was subsequently withdrawn when they were asked to enlist in the regular army.

As mercenaries, ascetics served a wide range of employers, from maharajas and local landowners (zamindars) to the British. Almost every zamindar maintained a detachment of ascetic bodyguards. They were still being hired in the principalities of Kota and Bundi in the early 20th century and guarded the gates of the Udaipur palace well into its first half. Their role in India’s military history is comparable to that of the Swiss mercenaries in Europe. Their strict chain of command, fortitude, and willingness to die for their leaders, combined with exceptional combat skills, made them a highly sought-after asset in any army until the 19th century.

The structure and organization of warrior ascetic orders were fundamentally shaped by the traditional teacher-disciple (guru-chela) spiritual system. The guru commanded absolute authority, wielding profound influence not only over the bodies of his followers but also over their souls, making disobedience unthinkable. This hierarchy created a clear chain of command: the guru’s closest disciples formed his inner circle of leadership, their own disciples constituted the next level, and so forth down the ranks. Consequently, ascetics were never recruited or paid as individual mercenaries. The fundamental fighting unit was always the collective — a detachment, whether large or small, under the direct leadership of its guru.

Like any other troops, detachments of ascetic warriors could be dispersed by artillery and rifle fire. However, under the more familiar conditions of pre-firearms warfare, this was virtually impossible. Their resilience was also significantly enhanced by the martial practices they cultivated. These practices, like the battle itself, were perceived as ritualistic actions and a crucial form of self-identity. Through rigorous weapons training and the maintenance of physical fitness via traditional methods including wrestling ascetics were forged into superior close-combat soldiers. This effectiveness in melee led to their employment as mercenary shock infantry, tasked with delivering the first, devastating strike. In the context of 18th-century warfare, increasingly dominated by firearms, such a role was generally tactically unjustified.

Regular and often bloody conflicts between different sects of warrior-ascetics at pilgrimage sites played a crucial role in sustaining their martial prowess and group morale. For centuries, from the 13th to the 19th, pilgrimage sites like Hardwar, Thanesar, Nasik, and Ayodhya were the stages for regular and bloody conflicts between rival ascetic sects. The major Kumbh Mela festivals, occurring in a cycle of every three to twelve years, often served as the backdrop for these violent clashes. While not every skirmish was recorded, the documented history reveals events of startling brutality, with death tolls ranging from the hundreds to several thousand.

Officially, the disputes were over precedence: which sect held the right to perform the first ritual, occupy the most favorable camping ground, or lead the ceremonial procession. Although a traditional order existed, it was perpetually contested, with a sect’s position depending on its current strength and influence. A violent challenge, often resulting in significant bloodshed, would establish a new status quo that might last for years. This fragile peace would hold until another, more powerful ascetic movement arose to disrupt it once more. These battles would only cease when one faction achieved total dominance or had completely annihilated its rivals, though the defeated could, and often did, regroup, gather allies, and return to reverse the outcome in a subsequent cycle of violence.

Following the suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny (1857-59), the British administration finally resolved the issue of armed asceticism. The ascetics’ capacity for resistance had already been severely undermined in preceding decades, and their role in the uprising was therefore limited. On the roads of India, it had become uncommon to see any armed ascetic, let alone an organized group. The martial practices of these orders shifted from practical application to ceremonial display and athletic competition. Meanwhile, the administration took direct control of major pilgrimage sites, establishing and maintaining order. Within the ascetic communities themselves, deprived of their traditional means of support, the number of impostors, swindlers, and beggars likely began to outnumber the genuine practitioners. Yet, as late as the beginning of the 20th century, a reminder of their militant past persisted: weapons could still be seen hanging on the walls of old ascetic establishments — structures that often resembled small fortresses more than holy shrines.

While ascetics have evolved dramatically from carrying simple clubs for self-defense to commanding vast armies equipped with cavalry, muskets, cannons, and even rockets — this military aspect was once a genuine form of spiritual discipline. Although armed asceticism later became primarily a livelihood and way of life, participation in battle and weapons training were originally essential practices. They served not only for self-identification and self-improvement but also as a direct path to achieving religious salvation.